Table 3 Use of non-AAS substances, reason(s)/motive(s) for use, and studies

2,4-dinitrophenol

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]; Dunn [15]; Hope [25]; Larance [35]

4

Acetaminophen

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Alcohol

Better sleep and relaxation

Chandler [12]; Hegazy [23]; Kanayama [28]; Kusserow [34]; Lundholm [37]; Malone [38]; Peters [46]; Perry [48]; Skårberg [52-54]

Better sleep and relaxation

Chandler [12]; Dunn [15]; Fudala [17]; Gruber [21,22]; Hegazy [23]; Hoff [24]; Hope [25]; Kanayama [26-28]; Katz [29]; Kusserow [34]; Malone [38]; Peters [46]; Perry [48]; Skårberg [52-54]; Tallon [56]; Wines [58]

23

Aminogluthimide

Reducing receptors’ attraction to cortisol

Peters [46]

Reducing receptors’ attraction to cortisol

Gruber [22]; Peters [46]

2

Amyl nitrate

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]

1

Analgesics/opioids^†

Pain relief

Ahlgrim [9]; Hegazy [23]; Kanayama [28]; Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Lundholm [37]; Malone [38]; McBride [39]; Pappa [43]; Skårberg [53]

Pain relief

Ahlgrim [9]; Fudala [17]; Gruber [22]; Hegazy [23]; Kanayama [26,28], Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Malone [38]; McBride [39]; Pappa [43]; Rashid [49]; Skårberg [53,54]

14

Anti-acne drugs^†

–

–

Combating acne

Skårberg [54]

1

Antibiotics^†

Combating acne

Peters [46]

Combating acne

Korkia [32]; Peters [46]

2

Anti-catabolics^†

NS

Skårberg [53]

Facilitating synthesis of hepatic protein and nitrogen economy

Skårberg [53,54]

2

Anti-depressants^†

Combating side effects

Klötz [31]

Combating side effects, depression relief, boosting levels of serotonin and noradrenaline

Klötz [31]; Skårberg [54]

2

Anti-oestrogens^†

Burning fat, combating gynecomastia, reducing effects on oestrogen

Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53]

Combating gynecomastia, burning fat, reducing effects on oestrogen

Gårevik [18]; Hope [25]; Klötz [31]; Korkia [32]; Kusserow [34]; Larance [35]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

9

Aromatase inhibitors^†

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]

1

Aspirin®

NS

Klötz [31]; Perry [45]; Skårberg [53]; Strauss [55]

NS

Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; Perry [45]; Skårberg [53]; Strauss [55]

5

Ben-Gay®

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Benoxaprofen

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Benzodiazepines^†

Better sleep, combating side effects, relaxation

Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; Lundholm [37]; McBride [39]; Skårberg [53]

Combating side effects, enhancing sleep and relaxation, self-control, sedation

Gårevik [18]; Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; Lundholm [37]; Malone [38]; McBride [39]; Skårberg [53,54]

8

Beta blockers^†

Burning fat

Peters [46]

Burning fat

Peters [46]

1

Beta-2-agonists^†

–

–

NS

Bilard [11]

1

Blood pressure regulators^†

NS

Kusserow [34]

Lower blood pressure

Kusserow [34]; Skårberg [54]

2

Bronchodilators^†

Energy and boosting training

Skårberg [53]

Burning fat, energy and boosting training, increasing strength

Skårberg [53,54]

2

Buprenorphine

NS

Skårberg [53]

NS

Skårberg [53]; Wines [58]

2

Caffeine

Burning fat

Klötz [31]; Pappa [43]; Perry [45]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53]; Strauss [55]

Burning fat

Gruber [22]; Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Perry [45]; Skårberg [53]; Strauss [55]

8

Calcium

–

–

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Cannabis/cannabinoids

Enhancing sleep, relaxation

Chandler [12]; Kanayama [27,28]; Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Lundholm [37]; Malone [38]; McBride [39]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Perry [48]; Skårberg [53,54]

Enhancing sleep, relaxation

Bilard [11]; Chandler [12]; Dunn [15]; Fudala [17]; Gruber [21,22]; Hoff [24]; Kanayama [27,28]; Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Larance [35]; Malone [38]; McBride [39]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Perry [48]; Rashid [49]; Skårberg [53,54]; Tallon [56]

21

Captopril

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

1

Carvedilol

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

1

Choline and inositol

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Chromium picolinate

Reducing body weight

Peters [46]

Reducing body weight

Peters [46]

1

Clenbuterol

Anabolic effects, burning fat, removing skin fluid, weight loss

Chandler [12]; Gruber [21]; Kimergård [30]; Klötz [31]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]; Peters [46]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

Anabolic effects, burning fat, removing skin fluid, weight loss

Chandler [12]; Gruber [20-22]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]; Klötz [31]; Korkia [33]; Larance [35]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]; Peters [46]; Tallon [56]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

14

Clomiphene citrate

NS

Chandler [12]; Moss [41,42]; Perry [45]

NS

Chandler [12]; Moss [41,42]; Perry [45]

4

Cocaine

Boosting training, burning fat, increasing strength

Chandler [12]; Kanayama [28]; Larance [35]; Lundholm [37]; Malone [38]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

Boosting training, burning fat, increasing strength

Chandler [12]; Dunn [15]; Fudala [17]; Gårevik [18]; Gruber [21]; Hoff [24]; Hope [25]; Kanayama [26-28]; Katz [29]; Larance [35]; Lundholm [37]; Malone [38]; Peters [46]; Rashid [49]; Skårberg [53,54]; Tallon [56]

19

Codeine

Boosting training

Skårberg [53]; Strauss [55]

Boosting training

Skårberg [53]; Strauss [55]

2

Conjugated linoleic acid

Burning fat

Skårberg [53]

Burning fat

Skårberg [53]

1

Corticosteroids^†

NS

Lenehan [36]

NS

Bilard [11]; Korkia [32]; Lenehan [36]

3

Creatine

Enhancing the effects of training

Klötz [31]; Skårberg [53]; Perry [45]

Anabolic effects, endurance booster, enhancing the effects of training, recovery aid

Davies [14]; Filiault [16]; Hoff [24]; Klötz [31]; Perry [45]; Skårberg [53,54]

7

Daonil®

Increasing insulin release

Peters [46]

Increasing insulin release

Peters [46]

1

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

–

–

NS

Larance [35]

1

Diazepam

–

–

NS

Gårevik [18]

1

Dietary/nutritional supplements^†

Energy and boosting training, nutrition

Pappa [43]; Perry [45]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]; Strauss [55]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

Energy and boosting training, anabolic effects, endurance booster, nutrition, recovery aid

Davies [14]; Filiault [16]; Gruber [21]; Korkia [32]; Pappa [43]; Perry [45]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]; Strauss [55]; Tallon [56]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

12

Digoxin

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

1

Dimethyl sulfoxide

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Diuretics^†

Combating side effects, masking doping drugs, reducing fluid levels

Chandler [12]; Klötz [31]; Lenehan [36]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

Combating side effects, masking doping drugs, reducing fluid levels

Chandler [12]; Goldfield [19]; Hope [25]; Klötz [31]; Korkia [32]; Larance [35]; Lenehan [36]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [54]; Tallon [56]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

12

Electrolyte solution

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Ephedra/Ephedrine

Energy and boosting training, enhancing weight loss

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]; Klötz [31]; McBride [39]; Perry [45]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53]

Energy and boosting training, burning fat, enhancing weight loss, increasing strength

Chandler [12]; Gårevik [18]; Gruber [20]; Gårevik [18]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]; Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; McBride [39]; Perry [45]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

14

Epinephrine

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Erythropoietin (EPO)

NS

Pappa [43]; Schäfer [50]

NS

Hope [25]; Pappa [43]; Schäfer [50]

3

Esiclene

–

–

NS

Korkia [32]

1

Fat-loss agents^†

–

–

Burning fat

Skårberg [54]

1

Furosemide

Weight loss

Ahlgrim [9]; Strauss [55]

Weight loss

Ahlgrim [9]; McKillop [40]; Strauss [55]

3

Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB)

Enhancing sleep

Chandler [12]; Klötz [31]; Skårberg [54]

Enhancing sleep

Chandler [12]; Dunn [15]; Gruber [22]; Klötz [31]; Skårberg [54]

5

Genotropine

NS

Klötz [31]

NS

Klötz [31]

1

Glutamine

NS

Perry [45]

NS

Perry [45]

1

Growth hormone

Anabolic effects and strength, burning fat, weight loss

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]; Kusserow [34]; Lenehan [36]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]; Strauss [55]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

Anabolic effects, burning fat, endurance booster, recovery aid, weight loss

Chandler [12]; Filiault [16]; Fudala [17]; Gårevik [18]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]; Korkia [32,33]; Kusserow [34]; Larance [35]; Lenehan [36]; Peters [46]; Silvester [51]; Skårberg [53,54]; Strauss [55]; Tallon [56]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

18

Growth hormone releasing peptides^†

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]

1

Hallucinogens^†

NS

Larance [35]; Malone [38]

NS

Dunn [15]; Larance [35]; Malone [38]

3

Herbal products^†

NS

Skårberg [53]

Increasing strength

Skårberg [53,54]

Heroin

Enhancing sleep, pain relief

Cornford [13]; Larance [35]; Skårberg [54]

Enhancing sleep, pain relief

Gårevik [18]; Cornford [13]; Kanayama [27]; Larance [35]; Skårberg [54]; Wines [58]

6

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Minimizing depressive symptoms upon AAS cessation/withdrawal, improving testosterone production, preventing weight loss, stopping testicular atrophy, increasing strength

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]; Moss [41,42]; Perry [44]; Peters [46]; Perry [47]; Korkia [32]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

Anabolic effects, increasing testosterone production, minimizing depressive symptoms upon AAS cessation/withdrawal, preventing weight loss, stopping testicular atrophy, increasing strength

Chandler [12]; Fudala [17]; Gruber [22]; Gårevik [18]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]; Korkia [32]; Larance [35]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]; McKillop [40]; Moss [41,42]; Perry [44]; Peters [46]; Perry [47]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

17

Hydrochlorothiazide

Weight loss

Ahlgrim [9]

Weight loss

Ahlgrim [62]

1

Hydrocodone

–

–

NS

Wines [58]

1

Hydroxocobal amin

Weight gain

Peters [46]

Weight gain

Peters [46]

1

Inhalants^†

NS

Larance [35]

NS

Dunn [15]; Larance [35]

2

Insulin

Anabolic effects and strength, burning fat, weight loss

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]; Klötz [31]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

Anabolic effects and strength, burning fat, weight loss

Chandler [12]; Gårevik [18]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]; Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]; Tallon [56]

10

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)

Anabolic effects and strength, burning fat

Chandler [12]; Klötz [31]; Lenehan [36]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

Anabolic effects and strength, burning fat

Chandler [12]; Fudala [17]; Klötz [31]; Larance [35]; Lenehan [36]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

8

Ketamine

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]; Dunn [15]

2

Laxative

–

–

NS

Goldfield [19]

2

Levodopa

NS

Strauss [55]

Increasing growth hormone

Strauss [55]; Skårberg [54]

2

Lidocaine

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

2

Liothyronine

NS

Perry [45]

NS

Perry [45]

1

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

NS

Skårberg [54]

NS

Rashid [49]; Skårberg [54]

2

Mechano growth factor

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]

1

Melanotan

Boosting training, skin tanning

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]

Boosting training, skin tanning

Chandler [12]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]

3

Mephedrone

NS

Chandler [12]

NS

Chandler [12]

1

Meth/amphetamine

Alertness, boosting training, burning fat, increasing aggression during exercise, increasing strength, psychological wellbeing

Chandler [12]; Hegazy [23]; Kimergård [30]; Larance [35]; Lundholm [37]; McBride [39]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]

Alertness, boosting training, burning fat, increasing aggression during exercise, increasing strength, psychological wellbeing

Angoorani [10]; Chandler [12]; Gårevik [18]; Hegazy [23]; Hoff [24]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]; Larance [35]; Lundholm [37]; McBride [39]; Pappa [43]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [53,54]; Tallon [56]

15

Muscle oil (synthol)

–

–

Anabolic effect

Skårberg [54]

1

Muscle relaxing drugs^†

Combating side effects

Klötz [31]

Combating side effects

Klötz [31]

1

Myoblast

NS

Klötz [31]

NS

Klötz [31]

1

Nalbuphine/nubain®

NS

Strauss [55]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]

Treating pain from weightlifting injuries, “anti-catabolic”, mental high

Gruber [22]; Hope [25]; Kanayama [27]; Korkia [33]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]; Strauss [55]; Wines [58]

8

Naproxen

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) ^†

–

–

Inflammation, pain, and fever relief

Skårberg [54]

1

Oxycodone

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Kanayama [27]; Strauss [55]

2

Peptide hormones^†

–

–

NS

Bilard [11]

1

Phenylbutazone

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors (PDE5i) ^†

–

–

NS

Hope [25]

1

Piroxicam

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Potassium

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Potency/testicular increasing drugs^†

Combating side effects

Klötz [31]

Combating side effects

Klötz [31]

1

Pregnyl®

Improved testosterone production

Peters [46]

Improved testosterone production

Peters [46]

1

Protein powder

Enhancing effects of training, increasing protein synthesis

Perry [45]; Skårberg [53,54]

Enhancing effects of training, increasing protein synthesis

Perry [45]; Skårberg [53,54]

3

Proviron®

Hardiness, improved testosterone production

Peters [46]

Hardiness, improved testosterone production

Peters [46]

1

Recovery drinks^†

–

–

Endurance booster, recovery aid

Filiault [16]

1

Sedatives^†

NS

Malone [38]

NS

Malone [38]

1

Sildenafil/viagra®/cialis

Enhanced sexual functioning

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]

Enhanced sexual functioning

Chandler [12]; Gårevik [18]; Hope [25]; Kimergård [30]

4

Somatotropine

NS

Klötz [31]

NS

Klötz [31]

1

Spironolactone

Weight loss

Ahlgrim [9]

Weight loss

Ahlgrim [9]

1

Stimulants^†

NS

Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Malone [38]

Increasing strength, burning fat

Fudala [17]; Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Malone [38]; Rashid [49]; Skårberg [54]

6

Suntan pills^†

NS

Strauss [55]

NS

Strauss [55]

1

Tamoxifen

Combating side effects

Chandler [12]; Kimergård [30]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]

Combating side effects

Chandler [12]; Gruber [22]; Kimergård [30]; Korkia [33]; Lenehan [36]; McBride [39]; Tallon [56]

7

Teroxin (T3)

Preventing weight gain

Peters [46]

Preventing weight gain

Peters [46]

1

Testosterone releasers/boosters^†

Combating side effects, increasing hormone production

Skårberg [53]

Combating side effects, increasing blood serum levels of testosterone or hormone production

Skårberg [53,54]

2

Thiazides^†

–

–

NS

McKillop [40]

1

Thiomucase

NS

Wilson-Fearon [57]

Burning fat

Korkia [32,33]; Wilson-Fearon [57]

3

Thyroxine

Burning fat, increasing metabolism

Chandler [12]; Lenehan [36]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [54]; Strauss [55]

Burning fat, increasing metabolism

Chandler [12]; Gruber [22]; Hope [25]; Korkia [32]; Larance [35]; Lenehan [36]; McKillop [40]; Peters [46]; Skårberg [54]; Strauss [55]

10

Tobacco

NS

Malone [38]; Perry [48]; Pope [47]

NS

Malone [38]; Perry [48]; Pope [47]

3

Torsemide

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

NS

Ahlgrim [9]

1

Triacana

–

–

NS

Korkia [33]

1

Yohimbine

NS

Perry [45]

NS

Gruber [22]; Perry [45]

3

Other IPEDs, licit and illicit substances

NS

Kanayama [28]; Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Perry [48]; Skårberg [52]

NS

Gruber [20,21]; Hoff [24]; Hope [25]; Kanayama [26,28]; Klötz [31]; Kusserow [34]; Perry [48]; Skårberg [52,54]; Wines [58]