Table 3 Factors associated with substance use in the past 12 months among university students

 Low level of religious beliefs

1.976^** (1.74–2.23)

1.39^* (1.22–1.51)

1.24^* (1.01–1.51)

1.02 (0.97–1.2)

 Low self-esteem

0.723^* (0.58–0.89)

0.64^* (0.54–0.76)

1.00 (0.71–1.43)

0.79 (0.68–0.94)

 Stress and Psychological pressure

0.76 (0.62–0.91)

0.79 (0.67–0.92)

1.65^*(2.63–4.96)

0.17 (0.87–1.18)

 Attention seeking

0.89 (0.72–1.11)

0.92 (0.79–1.06)

1.02 (0.72–1.44)

0.78 (0.66–0.92)

 Sensation seeking

0.89 (1.02–1.52)

1.30^* (1.14–1.43)

1.49^* (1.08–2.05)

1.23^* (0.88–1.53)

 Depression and anxiety

1.36^** (1.08–1.72)

1.30^* (CI = 1.11–1.52)

0.92 (0.63–1.35)

1.68^*8 (1.41–2.02)

 Individual’s positive attitude towards substance abuse

2.59^** (2.07–3.24)

3.08^{** (}2.63–4.96)

3.62^** (2.63–4.96)

1.57^{* (}1.29–1.93)

 Anger and aggression

1.89^** (1.56–2.30)

1.76^{** (}1.53–2.03)

1.63^* (1.20–2.22)

1.19^* (1.02–1.40)

Low level of intimacy between the family members

0.96 (0.8–1.15)

1.12 (1.03–1.42)

0.99 (0.85–1.51)

1.03 (0.95–1.25)

 Family members’ cigarette/hookah use

0.48 (0.34–0.63)

7.52^* (4.97–11.36)

4.33^** (1.73–10.86)

2.34^** (1.45–3.77)

 Family members’ alcohol use

30.52^** (12.27–75.86)

2.24^* (1.02–4.88)

7.05^** (2.10–23.57)

0.06 (0.00–0.12)

 Family members’ drug use

2.86^* (0.98–8.31)

2.71^** (CI = 1.16–6.30)

12.07^** (2.88–50.72)

5.03^** (2.12–11.95)

 Family members’ prescribed medications use

1.09 (0.92–1.22)

1.70^{* (}= 1.28–2.83)

0.66 (0.41–0.90)

2.83^* (1.69–4.75)

 Parent’s positive attitude towards substance use

1.51^** (1.31–1.72)

1.34^** (1.13–1.57)

0.65 (0.50–0.85)

1.73^* (1.41–2.05)

 Peer’s positive attitude toward substance use

1.08 (0.9–1.24)

1.23^* (1.08–1.40)

0.76 (0.56–1.01)

0.93 (0.79–1.07)

 Peers’ drug use

3.21^** (2.50–4.12)

2.77** (2.22–3.46)

3.15^** (2.29–4.31)

1.26^* (0.99–1.60)

 Perceived prevalence of substance use among students

1.07 (0.89–1.29)

0.95 (0.81–1.07)

3.15^** (2.29–4.31)

1.20^* (1.06–1.35)

 Negative attitude toward the university

1.54** (1.22–1.95)

1.4* (1.17–1.68)

1.56^* (1.08–2.31)

1.01 (0.85–1.20)

 Perceived availability to illegal drugs

0.98 (0.85–1.11)

1.05 (0.92–1.14)

1.28^* (1.03–1.60)

1.18^* (1.06–1.3)